Category: Volume 6 and Issue 9 of 2026

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS: ISSUES OF TRANSPARENCY, ACCOUNTABILITY AND DUE PROCESS

AUTHOR – NEGA.N, LLM STUDENT AT THE TAMIL NADU DR. AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY

BEST CITATION – NEGA.N, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS: ISSUES OF TRANSPARENCY, ACCOUNTABILITY AND DUE PROCESS, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 765-773, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344.

INTRODUCTION

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative force in modern criminal investigations, significantly reshaping traditional methods of policing, surveillance, evidence analysis, and crime prevention. Technologies such as facial recognition systems, predictive policing algorithms, biometric surveillance, digital forensics, automated decision-making tools, and machine learning systems are increasingly used by law enforcement agencies to identify suspects, analyze large volumes of data, and improve investigative efficiency. While AI offers advantages such as speed, accuracy, and enhanced crime detection capabilities, its growing integration into criminal justice systems has also raised serious legal, ethical, and constitutional concerns. Issues relating to algorithmic opacity, lack of transparency, biased decision-making, wrongful identification, and misuse of surveillance technologies challenge the principles of accountability, fairness, and due process. Furthermore, the extensive collection and monitoring of personal data through AI-driven systems raise concerns regarding privacy, equality, and protection against arbitrary state action, particularly in the absence of comprehensive legal regulation. In India, the increasing adoption of AI technologies in policing and criminal investigations highlights the urgent need for a balanced legal framework that ensures effective law enforcement while safeguarding constitutional rights and democratic values. This research paper therefore critically examines the role of Artificial Intelligence in criminal investigations with specific focus on the issues of transparency, accountability, and due process, while also analysing the need for regulatory safeguards and ethical AI governance in the digital age.

DATA PROTECTION AND CROSS BORDER DISPUTES

AUTHOR – FARZILA, STUDENT AT TAMIL NADU DR AMBEDKAR LAW COLLEGE

BEST CITATION – FARZILA, DATA PROTECTION AND CROSS BORDER DISPUTES, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 757-764, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344.

ABSTRACT

The fast-paced developments in digital technology, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and internet communication across the globe have resulted in greater flows of personal data internationally. Cross-border flows of data have contributed immensely to the processes of economic development, innovation, and international collaboration; however, the issue of cross-border personal data flow presents several legal problems as well. The disparities among national laws of data protection, the practices of government surveillance, cyber security threats, and jurisdictional issues have posed a number of cross-border controversies. The objective of this research paper is to study the issue of data protection law and the issues involved in regulating international data management. In this context, the research will look into the primary causes that lead to data protection issues at an international level. In addition, the paper will compare how Europe, the US, and India protect and regulate data management practices. Apart from this, the research will examine the role played by international organizations as well as the role of judicial decisions in the regulation of data protection. Moreover, some of the challenges related to data protection include non-uniformity in legislation, poor enforcement, and rapid technological development impacting privacy.

THE LEGAL CHALLENGES OF AI IN HEALTHCARE:  CYBER-LEGAL ANALYSIS OF LIABILITY AND SYSTEMIC VULNERABILITIES UNDER INDIAN LAW

AUTHOR – BALASUBRAMANIAN K.V., STUDENT AT CYBER SPACE LAW AND JUSTICE DEPARTMENT, SCHOOL OF EXCELLENCE IN LAW, THE TAMILNADU DR. AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY

BEST CITATION – BALASUBRAMANIAN K.V, THE LEGAL CHALLENGES OF AI IN HEALTHCARE:  CYBER-LEGAL ANALYSIS OF LIABILITY AND SYSTEMIC VULNERABILITIES UNDER INDIAN LAW, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 747-756, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344.

Abstract

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming healthcare through applications such as diagnostics, robotic surgery, predictive analytics, telemedicine, drug discovery, and patient monitoring. While AI improves efficiency, accuracy, and accessibility, particularly in developing countries like India, it also creates significant legal, ethical, constitutional, and cybersecurity concerns. This study critically examines the challenges posed by AI-driven healthcare systems through a cyber-legal and comparative analysis. It evaluates the adequacy of existing Indian laws, including the Information Technology Act, 2000, Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, and the National Medical Commission Act, 2019, along with ethical guidelines issued by the Indian Council of Medical Research. The paper further explores constitutional principles such as privacy, dignity, informed consent, equality, and the right to health under Article 21, supported by landmark judgments including Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India. It identifies regulatory gaps concerning liability, algorithmic bias, cybersecurity, accountability, and data protection, while comparatively analysing AI governance models in the European Union, United States, China, Japan, Canada, and Singapore. The study concludes that India requires comprehensive AI-specific healthcare legislation balancing innovation with constitutional and ethical safeguards.

SHARES AND DEBENTURES UNDER INDIAN CORPORATE LAW: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LEGAL FRAMEWORK, INVESTOR RIGHTS AND CORPORATE FINANCING

AUTHOR – BAIBHABA CHINHARA, LLM STUDENT AT G.M. LAW COLLEGE, SRI VIHAR, PURI

BEST CITATION – BAIBHABA CHINHARA, SHARES AND DEBENTURES UNDER INDIAN CORPORATE LAW: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LEGAL FRAMEWORK, INVESTOR RIGHTS AND CORPORATE FINANCING, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 734-746, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344. DOI – https://doi.org/10.65393/IJLRV6I978

Abstract

The corporate form has emerged as the most sophisticated institutional mechanism for the mobilization of capital, allocation of commercial risk, and facilitation of economic growth. The capacity of corporations to raise funds through legally recognized financial instruments lies at the heart of corporate enterprise. Among such instruments, shares and debentures constitute the principal modes through which companies secure long-term equity capital and debt financing, respectively. Although both instruments serve the common commercial objective of capital mobilization, they differ fundamentally in their legal nature, economic consequences, governance implications, and regulatory treatment. Shares represent proprietary participation in the corporate entity, conferring membership rights, governance participation, and residual economic claims. Debentures, in contrast, create a creditor-debtor relationship, entitling investors to fixed returns and repayment rights without ownership participation. The legal regulation of these instruments in India has evolved significantly through statutory reform, judicial interpretation, and securities market regulation. The Companies Act, 2013, the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992, the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956, SEBI regulations, and judicial precedents collectively create a comprehensive framework governing issuance, transfer, redemption, disclosure obligations, investor protection, and corporate accountability. Contemporary developments such as dematerialized securities, hybrid financial instruments, institutional investment activism, insolvency proceedings, and globalized capital markets have further transformed the practical operation of these instruments. This article undertakes a doctrinal and analytical examination of shares and debentures under Indian corporate law, evaluating their conceptual foundations, statutory architecture, judicial treatment, governance implications, and practical significance. It further assesses the adequacy of the present legal framework in addressing emerging corporate financing challenges while maintaining investor protection and market integrity.

Keywords: Corporate Law; Shares; Debentures; Companies Act, 2013; SEBI; Corporate Finance; Shareholder Rights; Debenture Holders; Securities Regulation; Investor Protection

A CRITICAL STUDY OF INSURANCE SECTOR LIBERALISATION IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE FDI REGIME, IRDAI REGULATORY CAPACITY AND POLICYHOLDER PROTECTION

AUTHOR – PRIYANSHU DIXIT* & DR. EKTA GUPTA**

* STUDENT AT AMITY LAW SCHOOL, AMITY UNIVERSITY NOIDA

** ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AT AMITY LAW SCHOOL, AMITY UNIVERSITY NOIDA

BEST CITATION – PRIYANSHU DIXIT & DR. EKTA GUPTA, A CRITICAL STUDY OF INSURANCE SECTOR LIBERALISATION IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE FDI REGIME, IRDAI REGULATORY CAPACITY AND POLICYHOLDER PROTECTION, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 719-733, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344. DOI – https://doi.org/10.65393/IJLRV6I977

ABSTRACT

India’s successive liberalisation of foreign equity caps in the insurance sector culminating in a proposed ceiling of one hundred percent proceeds from the assumption that ownership restrictions are the principal impediment to sectoral development. The empirical record challenges that assumption with uncomfortable consistency: insurance penetration has stagnated at approximately four percent of GDP, and FDI inflows have persistently fallen short of legislative expectations, across the very period in which liberalisation was most actively pursued. This paper argues that the binding constraint is not the equity ceiling but the structural inadequacy of IRDAI’s regulatory capacity encompassing supervisory reach, enforcement consistency, group level oversight, and institutional independence. Through doctrinal analysis of the governing legal framework, comparative assessment of Singapore, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and China as models of sequenced liberalisation, and empirical engagement with official data from IRDAI, DPIIT, and UNCTAD, the paper demonstrates that full foreign ownership, in the absence of commensurate regulatory preparedness, exposes policyholders to governance and systemic risks that the existing architecture is ill equipped to manage. Regulatory capacity building is not a consequence of liberalisation to be deferred .it is a precondition upon which the reform’s legitimacy depends.

Keywords: Foreign direct investment, insurance regulation, IRDAI, regulatory capacity, FDI liberalisation, policyholder protection, comparative insurance law

JUDICIAL DIRECTIONS AND POLICE REFORMS IN INDIA: CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERATIVES, COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES

AUTHOR – SATHYARAJ K K, LLM STUDENT, CRIMINAL LAW DEPARTMENT, TAMILNADU DR. AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY, PERUNGUDI CAMPUS, CHENNAI 600013

BEST CITATION – SATHYARAJ K K, JUDICIAL DIRECTIONS AND POLICE REFORMS IN INDIA: CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERATIVES, COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 710-718, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344.

Abstract

Police reform in India has emerged as a constitutional and institutional imperative in response to persistent challenges such as custodial violence, arbitrary arrests, political interference, and erosion of public trust in law enforcement. This study critically examines the evolution, legal foundations, and contemporary relevance of police reforms in India through an analysis of constitutional provisions, statutory frameworks, judicial interventions, and reform committee recommendations. Anchored primarily in Articles 14, 21, and 32 of the Constitution, the paper explores how judicial activism—particularly through landmark decisions such as D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal and Prakash Singh v. Union of India—has shaped procedural safeguards, accountability mechanisms, and structural reforms within policing. The research further evaluates the influence of major police reform committees, including the National Police Commission, Malimath Committee, and Soli Sorabjee Committee, alongside recent legislative developments under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 and Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023. By examining implementation challenges, state responses, and recent instances of custodial misconduct, particularly in Tamil Nadu, the study highlights the persistent gap between normative legal frameworks and operational realities. The paper concludes by proposing a rights-oriented, institutionally autonomous, and citizen-centric model of policing that integrates constitutional morality, legislative enforcement, judicial oversight, and administrative accountability as the way forward for meaningful police reform in India.

Keywords: Police Reforms, Judicial Activism, Custodial Violence, Constitutional Rights, Prakash Singh Case, D.K. Basu Guidelines, Police Accountability, BNS and BNSS, Rule of Law, Human Rights

VICTIMS OF CORPORATE CRIME AND IT’S EFFECT: A SOCIO LEGAL STUDY

AUTHOR – ANKIT KUMAR YADAV* & DR. DEO NARAYAN SINGH**

* LL.M. SCHOOL OF LAW AND GOVERNANCE CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH BIHAR 2025-26.

** ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, SCHOOL OF LAW AND GOVERNANCE, CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH BIHAR

BEST CITATION – ANKIT KUMAR YADAV & DR. DEO NARAYAN SINGH, VICTIMS OF CORPORATE CRIME AND IT’S EFFECT: A SOCIO LEGAL STUDY, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 700-709, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344. DOI – https://doi.org/10.65393/IJLRV6I975

Abstract

Corporate crime has serious and far-reaching consequences for people, communities and the environment. Corporate crime is often perceived as a non-violent, technical form of misbehaviour. The main focus of the article is on the victims of corporate crime who are usually ignored and highlights how harm is often hidden, mitigated and delayed. Unlike the traditional crimes, corporate misconduct does not usually have immediate or identifiable victims, therefore identification and remediation are more difficult. The study addresses a number of groups of victims, such as communities affected by environmental degradation, workers subjected to abusive working conditions and consumers exposed to dangerous products. Furthermore, this paper examines some categories of corporate crime such as consumer deception, labour abuse, environmental crimes and financial fraud. The study also reveals the pervasive and multifaceted harm caused by corporate wrongdoing in these categories.

Keywords

White-Collar Crime, Consumer Crime, Corporate Crime, Labour Exploitation, Consumer Protection, Corporate Liability, Environmental Crime, Regulatory Framework, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Social Impact Economic Loss, Legal Enforcement, Public Awareness and Corporate Ethics

NAVIGATING UNCERTAINTY: A CRITICAL SOCIO-LEGAL STUDY OF DATA PROTECTION AND POST-EMPLOYMENT RESTRICTION CLAUSES IN INDIAN IT EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS

AUTHOR – MS. PERTILLA VIRGINIA VINCENT* & DR. VIJAYALAKSHMI**

* FACULTY, GOVT LAW COLLEGE, COIMBATORE

** ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, HEAD I/C, DEPARTMENT OF CRIME AND FORENSICS LAW, SCHOOL OF EXCELLENCE, TAMIL NADU DR AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

BEST CITATION – MS. PERTILLA VIRGINIA VINCENT & DR. VIJAYALAKSHMI, NAVIGATING UNCERTAINTY: A CRITICAL SOCIO-LEGAL STUDY OF DATA PROTECTION AND POST-EMPLOYMENT RESTRICTION CLAUSES IN INDIAN IT EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 691-699, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344.

Abstract

The rapid growth of the Indian Information Technology (IT) industry has significantly transformed employment relationships through the increasing use of standardized digital employment contracts containing complex provisions relating to data protection, confidentiality, employee monitoring, intellectual property and post-employment restrictions. In contemporary technology-driven workplaces, employment agreements no longer merely regulate service conditions and remuneration but increasingly function as instruments of digital governance, organizational control, and risk management. However, the expansion of such contractual obligations has simultaneously generated substantial ambiguities concerning the scope, interpretation, enforceability and legal consequences of data protection and post-employment restriction clauses, thereby affecting employment security. This paper critically examines the socio-legal dimensions of ambiguities found in data protection and post-employment restriction clauses in Indian IT industry employment contracts. The research analyses how drafted electronic monitoring provisions, cybersecurity compliance clauses, non-compete restrictions and post-employment requirements often create uncertainty regarding employee rights and liabilities. Particular focus is laid on the role of technical and legal language in creating informational asymmetry within contractual relationships. These issues are evaluated through the legal framework of Indian Contract Act, 1872, IT Act, 2000, Constitutional Principles relating to Privacy, Occupational Freedom and Judicial Precedents concerning. This Paper finds that ambiguities in this kind of post-employment restriction clauses create significant challenges requiring greater contractual transparency, stronger employee awareness and clearer legal standards capable of harmonizing organizational interests with employee rights and employment security in the digital workplace.

Keywords: IT Industry, Employment Contracts, Confidentiality

LEGAL IMPLICATIONS OF DEFAMATION PROVISIONS IN INDONESIA’S ELECTRONIC INFORMATION AND TRANSACTIONS LAW: BETWEEN PROTECTION OF REPUTATION AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

AUTHORS – HANS PAULUS MICHEL LEUNUPUN¹, JUANRICO ALFAROMONA SUMAREZS TITAHELU², REIMON SUPUSEPA³

^{1 1}STUDENT OF POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM, DEPARTMENT MASTER OF LAW, PATTIMURA UNIVERSITY, AMBON, INDONESIA

² PROFESSOR OF CRIMINAL LAW, DEPARTMENT MASTER OF LAW, PATTIMURA UNIVERSITY, AMBON, INDONESIA

³ LECTURER POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM, DEPARTMENT MASTER OF LAW, PATTIMURA UNIVERSITY, AMBON, INDONESIA

BEST CITATION – HANS PAULUS MICHEL LEUNUPUN, JUANRICO ALFAROMONA SUMAREZS TITAHELU, REIMON SUPUSEPA, LEGAL IMPLICATIONS OF DEFAMATION PROVISIONS IN INDONESIA’S ELECTRONIC INFORMATION AND TRANSACTIONS LAW: BETWEEN PROTECTION OF REPUTATION AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 682-690, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344. DOI – https://doi.org/10.65393/IJLRV6I973

Abstract

This article explores the legal implications of the criminal defamation provisions under Indonesia’s Electronic Information and Transactions Law (ITE Law), particularly in light of the tension between the protection of personal reputation and the constitutional guarantee of freedom of expression. Employing a doctrinal legal analysis, this study examines the normative structure of Article 27 paragraph (3) and its amendments, judicial interpretation by the Constitutional Court, and its compatibility with human rights principles. The research method used by the researcher in this study is normative legal research, with a legal approach and a conceptual approach. The findings indicate that the current legal framework remains prone to abuse and over-criminalization, risking the suppression of democratic discourse. The article recommends a more proportional regulatory approach that aligns with international human rights standards and constitutional values in Indonesia.

Keywords: Defamation, ITE Law, Legal Implications, Freedom of Expression, Protection of Reputation,

DEVIANCE BY BUREAUCRATS

AUTHOR – R.N. VEDHA GEETHAN, LLM, CRIMINALOGY STUDENT AT TAMIL NADU DR AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY, SCHOOL OF EXCELLENCE IN LAW

BEST CITATION – R.N. VEDHA GEETHAN, DEVIANCE BY BUREAUCRATS, INDIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL REVIEW (IJLR), 6 (9) OF 2026, PG. 669-681, APIS – 3920 – 0001 & ISSN – 2583-2344.

ABSTRACT

The government of India has three significant organs, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary and it has been given separate roles and powers by the constitution of India to execute their functions independently. The executive branch of government consisting of ministers, bureaucrats and whole of government machinery which have major role in implementing the laws framed by the legislative assembly for the welfare of the citizens. The ultimate responsibility for running administration in an effective manner relies on the shoulders of the elected representatives who were elected to run day to administration of the government. Bureaucracy plays a very important role in maintaining the administrative efficiency, implementing government policies and ensure welfare of the general public. However the deviant behavior among bureaucrats has become a threatening concern in the modern way of administration. Deviance by bureaucrats generally refers to any form of unethical. Unlawful or carrying improper conduct by the public officials that deviates from the already established rule, administrative ethics and legal standards. Some of the deviant acts include favoritism, abuse of power, corruption, negligence, red-tapism, bribery, misuse of public resource, and administrative misconduct. These types of deviant activities by public officials not only provides personal benefits but also it weakens the public trust towards government, compromises government efficiency and becomes a major obstacle for the socio-economic development of the particular society.

This research project examines the nature of deviance by bureaucrats and the causes and consequence of such deviance among bureaucrats. This study majorly focuses on personal, social, economic, political and institutional factors responsible for the deviant conduct among the public officials. This study also analyses how the deviant behavior affects the proper governance, its transparency and accountability and also affects the public confidence among the administrative institutions. This study further examines the effectiveness of the legal mechanisms, anti-corruption laws made to curb the corrupt practices, disciplinary procedures and administrative reforms made by the government in controlling bureaucratic misconduct to provide effective administration.

KEY WORDS:

Bureaucrats, Unethical, Bribery, Misconduct, Bureaucracy, Ethical Administration.